台灣風險分析學會

Taiwan Society for Risk Analysis

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學會會刊

 

 

 2022年第6

歐盟最新出爐的雙酚A暴露限值較2018年的標準調降100,000倍      

 中國醫藥大學公共衛生學系 許惠悰
   Release: Mar 21, 2022

 

雙酚A(bisphenol A, BPA)是1891年由俄羅斯的化學家Alexander P. Dianin在氯化氫等催化劑或離子交換樹脂存在的狀態下,由兩個苯酚的分子和一個丙酮分子進行縮合反應而首次合成。但是,商業性的用途則一直到1957年,才由美國用於製造聚碳酸酯塑料(polycarbonate, PC),隔年,歐洲亦開始使用生產PC(Corrales et al., 2015)。根據統計顯示,將近95%的BPA是被用來製造PC及環氧塑脂(epoxy resins),而這兩者則是人類用來生產日常生活中的各種產品,包括瓶子、盤子、碗、杯子、微波容器、食品包裝、牙材、電子產品、熱感應紙等(Carwile et al., 2009; Ehrlich et al., 2014; Fleisch et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012)。換言之,BPA是一個人類生活中接觸暴露非常頻繁的化學物質。

BPA在1936年首度被發現具有雌激素活性,當時它被證明在注射入雌性大鼠的體內後,會誘發大鼠的陰道上皮角質化(Dodds and Lawson, 1936)。動物實驗的研究顯示,暴露 BPA 的雄性動物會影響其生殖器的發育,包括睪丸、副睪、精子、 精囊、前列腺、和精子的產生等均會受到影響(National Toxicology Program, 2008; Nakamura et al., 2010; Salian et al, 2009; Li et al., 2009)。另外,相關的研究亦指出,BPA 會對雄激素的受體產生干擾作用,導致雄性荷爾蒙的分泌受到抑制(Richter et al., 2007; Wetherill et al., 2007)。因此,BPA 被歸類為內分泌干擾物質之一。目前有關 BPA 的暴露與人體健康影響的流行病學研究,大致上可以發現與下列的幾種疾病呈現相關性,包括(1)流產;(2)早產;(3)心血管疾病;(3)氧化壓力及發炎;(4)糖尿病(Rubin, 2011);(5)免疫毒性;(6)代謝毒性;(7)致癌性(Almeida et al., 2018)。其他尚包括對男性的性荷爾蒙分泌產生影響(Meeker et al., 2010)和女性卵巢機能障礙或子宮內膜增生等問題(Takeuchi et al., 2004)。影響男性賀爾蒙分泌的研究中,有關卵泡刺激素(follicle stimulating hormone, FSH)與抑制素 B,此兩個荷爾蒙是經常用來預測精子品質好壞的指標。一般而言,FSH 升高與抑制素 B 降低,會造成精子品質的降低(Mabeck et al., 2005)。在 Meeker 等人(2010)的研究中,發現 BPA 濃度與 FSH 成正比,而與抑制素 B 成反比,確實顯示 BPA 對男性精子的品質造成負面的影響性。

法規上制定危害物質暴露的安全劑量過程中,主要是透過動物性的實驗,找出動物在接受暴露的劑量下無觀察到產生不良健康影響的劑量(No Observable Adverse Effect Level, NOAEL)。然後,以此估算人體可以接受的每日暴露量 (Acceptable Daily Intake, ADI) 或稱之為參考劑量 (Reference Dose, RfD)(Vandenberg et al., 2012)。美國環保署即是根據動物實驗之結果,在受試的大鼠之暴露劑量為 50 mg/kg/day 的條件下,產生減少體重增加的不良健康反應。在考慮三個不確定係數(物種間的差異性、考慮人體個體間的變異、本實驗只得到 LOAEL並未得到 NOAEL),因此給與 101010 的不確定性係數,以此獲得人體的RfD(50 mg/kg/day ÷ 1,000)為 50 µg/kg/day(USEPA, 1988)。 歐盟則在 2002 年,考慮了 BPA 之生殖毒性的影響及對於動物的賀爾蒙效應,訂定了低於美國環保署之參考劑量的每日可忍受劑量(Tolerable Daily Intake, TDI)為 10 µg/kg/day(European Union, 2008)。歐盟的食品安全局(The food safety authority, EFSA)更於2015年的健康風險評估中,將TDI調降為4 µg/kg/day(European Union, 2015)。

但是,隨後則開始有相關的學術文獻發現,「低劑量(low-dose)」的BPA暴露會對實驗的動物產生不良的健康影響。此處所謂的「低劑量」是指低於官方制定參考劑量值之動物實驗的NOAEL值(50 mg/kg/day) (vom Saal and Hughes, 2005)。下表是動物實驗中低劑量的BAP暴露,結果產生負面健康影響的研究之彙整。也就是說,這些實驗的結果,顯示目前官方所制定的TDI的數值,有可能無法保護人體的健康。

1、低劑量暴露BAP的動物實驗結果彙整

 

暴露劑量

健康效應

參考文獻

1

慢性生殖的健康效應及癌症

Newbold et al., 2009

2

增加前列腺的重量30%

Nagel et al., 1997

2

性早熟

Honma et al., 2002

2.4

降低睪丸中睪固酮的濃度

Akingbemi et al., 2004

2.5

乳腺癌細胞發展成癌症的傾向

Murray et al., 2007

10

前列腺對於賀爾蒙及癌症更為敏感

Ho et al., 2006

50

神經系統的健康效應

Leranth et al., 2008

50

干擾卵巢的發育

Adewale et al., 2009

2021年12月15日,歐盟的EFSA公告了一份BPA重新評估的最新草案,其中再將TDI的值降至0.04 ng/kg/day,也就是與2015年訂定的TDI值4 µg/kg/day比較,再低了100,000倍(EFSA, 2021)。其主要是根據2013-2018年間所發表的科學文獻,特別是那些與免疫系統影響的相關研究。在動物的實驗中,研究人員發現,低劑量BPA的暴露與T-輔助細胞(T-helper cells)的數量增加有關。而這種細胞是屬於在免疫機制中扮演重要關鍵作用的白血球細胞,當其數量增加時會導致過敏性肺部發炎的症狀。

目前國內對於BPA的管理,行政院環保署將其列為公告列管第四類毒性化學物質(有污染環境或危害人體健康之虞者)。而對於食品包裝的規範,各國是以限制食品接觸材質中BPA的遷移限值(specific migration limit, SML)進行管制。歐盟的標準為0.05ppm,而台灣的食藥署則設定為0.6ppm。因此,在歐盟最新的TDI值出爐之際,國內應該認真的審視最新的科學證據,檢討確保國人健康的BAP的管制標準。

 

參考文獻

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2. Almeida S, Raposo A, Almeida-Gonzalez M, Carrascosa C, 2018. Bisphenol A: food exposure and impact on human health. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Saf 17. 1503-1517.

3. Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP, 2004. Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells. Endocrinol 145, 592-603.

4. Carwile JL, Luu HT, LS, Driscoll DA, Yuang C, Chang JY, Ye X, Calafat AM, Michels KB, 2009. Polycarbonate bottle use and urinary bisphenol A concntrations. Environ Health Perspect 117, 1368-1372.

5. Corrales J, Kristofeo L, Steele W, Yates B, Breed C, Williams E, Brooks B, 2015. Global assessment of bisphenol A in the environment review and analysis of its occurrence and bioaccumulation. Dose Response 13, 1559325815598308.

6. Dodds EC, Lawson W, 1936. Synthetic estrogenic agents without the phenanthrene nucleus. Nature 137, 996.

7. Ehrlich S, Calafat AM, Humblet O, Smith T, Hauser R, 2014. Handling of thermal receipts as a source of exposure to bisphenol A. JAMA 311, 859-860.

8. EFSA, 2021. Bisphenol A: EFSA draft opinion proposes lowering the tolerable daily intake. Available at: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/bisphenol-efsa-draft-opinion-proposes-lowering-tolerable-daily-intake. Assessed: 2022/03/10.

9. European Union, 2008. European Union Risk Assessment Report. 4-4’-isopropylidenediphenol (Bisphenol A). Office for Official Publicationsof the European Communities, Luxembourg. Available at: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/4c398091-dba8-4fbe-9483-69dc4e8f785b/language-en.

10. European Union, 2015. Regulation 213 of 12 February 2018 on the use of bisphenol A in varnishes and coatings intended to come into use of that substance in plastic food contact materials. Official Journal European Community, L41, 6-12.

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13. Honma S, Suzuki A, Buchanan DL, Katxu Y, Watanabe H, Iguchi T, 2002. Low dose effect of in utero exposure to bisphenol A and diethylstilbestrol on female mouse reproduction. Reprod Toxicol 16, 117-122.

14. Huang Y, Wong C, Zheng J, Bouwman H, Barra R, Wahlstrom B, Neretin L, Wong MH, 2012. Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: a review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health impacts. Environ Int 42, 91-99.

15. Leranth C, Hajszan T, Szigeti-Buck K, Bober J, Maclusky NJ, 2008. Bisphenol A prevents the synaptogenic response to estradiol in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of ovariectomized nonhuman primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105, 14187.

16. Li YJ, Song TB, Cai YY, Zhou JS, Song X, Zhao X, 2009. Bisphenol A exposure induces apoptosis and upregulation of Fas/FasL and capase-3 expression in the tests of mice. Toxicol Sci 108, 427-436.

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18. Meeker JD, Calafat AM, Hauser R, 2010. Urinary bisphenol A concentrations in relation to serum thyroid and reproduction hormone levels in men from an infertility clinic. Environ Sci Technol 44, 1458-1463.

19. Murry TJ, Maffini MV, Ucc AA, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM, 2007. Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reprod Toxicol 23, 383-390.

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21. Nakamura D, Yanagaiba Y, Duan Z, Ito Y, Okamura A, Asaeda N, 2010. Bisphenol A may cause testosterone reduction by adversely affecting both testis and pituitary systems similar to estradiol. Toxicol Lett 194, 16-25.

22. National Toxicology Program, 2008. NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of bisphenol A. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

23. Richter CA, Birnbaum LS, Farabollini F, Newbold RR, Rubin BS, Talsness CE, 2007. In vivo effects of bisphenol A in laboratory rodent studies. Reprod Toxicol 24, 199-224.

24. Rubin BS, 2011. Bisphenol A: an endocrine disruptor with widespread exposure and multiple effects. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 127, 27-34.

25. Salian S, Doshi T, Vanage G, 2009. Perinatal exposure of rats to bisphenol A affects the fertility of male offspring. Life Sci 85, 742-752.

26. Takeuchi T, Tsutsumi O, Ikezuki Y, Takai Y, Taketani Y, 2004. Positive relationship between androgen and the endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A, in normal women and with ovarian dysfunction. Endocr J 51, 165-169.

27. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1988. Bisphenol A Reference Dose for Chronic Oral Exposure (RfD) in Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), A Toxicology Data File on the National Library of Medicine’s (NLM) TOXNET System.

28. Wetherill YB, Akingbemi BT, Kanno J, McLachlan JA, Nadal A, Sonnenschein C, 2007. In vitro molecular mechanisms of bisphenol A action. Reprod Toxicol 24, 178-198.

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